Martial Arts/Bujutsu

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Researching Gems with Unique Content

A little bit of what I’ve been working on lately. An interesting find while reviewing documents online regarding shinobi-related manuscripts and comparing the contents with what’s in other widely known ones, such as “Mansenshūkai” (万川集海), “Shōninki” (正忍記) , or even some lesser known ones like “Gōbudenpō Kyūkenkyū Monomi no maki” (合武伝法急勌齅物見之巻). In an academic report written by Mr. Inoue Naoya¹, a 3-volume manuscript known as “Yamazaki ryū Shinobi no sho” (山崎流忍之書)² is introduced, which covers certain skills that lean heavily on what a shinobi, or better known under the modern-day word “ninja”, would need while working actively in the field. On top of this, a separate document is mentioned to accompany the manuscript, which possesses philosophical guidance & advice pertaining to kenjutsu.

A screenshot from the actual academic report. The introduction section, giving background info about where the manuscript is located, how it became known, etc.

The contents from the actual manuscript were handwritten, while Mr. Naoya and the help of others reproduced them digitally. For this article, we’ll take an overview on the contents from the manuscript as explained in the academic report. Since the report is in Japanese, I’ll be providing translations in English and, if required, explanations on what the contents mean.

BREAKING DOWN THE SHINOBI NO SHO

First let’s cover the Shinobi no sho. While it has been determined to have been written in 1754, the author is unknown, which is the same for the group in which the contents are tied to. A manuscript divided into 3 volumes, much of the contents appear to be based on tested and real-world knowledge on how to successfully perform duties as a shinobi. Here are the 3 volumes based on their titles:

  • Vol 1: Omotemuki no maki³ (面向之巻)
  • Vol 2: Shinobi no monogatari kudensho (忍物語口伝書)
  • Vol 3: Omokage no maki (面影之巻)

Each volume contains an abundance of info, covering important topics that can be compared to and identified in other shinobi-related documents, giving proof of their connection. Taking a look at the 1st volume, there are 13 points detailing specific topics of knowledge.Here’s an example of some of these topics:

  • 入用道具之事 (Nyūyō dōgu no koto)
    Carrying tools for breaking an entry
  •  闇所にて人を見る事 (Kurai tokoro nite hito wo miru koto)
    Spying from the shadows
  • 起臥を知る事 (Kiga wo shiru koto)
    Monitoring a target’s daily activities
  • 眠薬之事 (Minyaku no koto)
    Using sleeping medicine to incapacitate a target
  • 堀ノ浅深を知る事 (Hori no senshin wo shiru koto)
    Learning about holes of different depths
  • 道に不迷之事 (Michi ni fumei no koto)
    How not to get lost when navigating through your target’s territory
  • 手火之事 (Tahi / Tebi no koto)
    Possessing lighting implements

These all appear to be geared towards one’s task on a more subtle level, such as blending in to an enemy’s territory while keeping a low profile. This volume is comparable to the skills mentioned in the sections called “Yōnin” (陽忍), found in Mansenshūkai.

Outline of the contents from the Shinobi no sho.

Next we turn to the 3rd volume, which contains 17 points of topics. Let’s look at a few of the contents below:

  • 松明之事 (Taimatsu no koto)
    Concerning the use of torches
  • 穴立火之事 (Anadate hi no koto)
    Using rice straw as a quick means for setting fire
  • 無言薬之事 (Mugonyaku no koto)
    Speech-impeding (sensory restricting) drugs
  • 隠形之文大事 (Ongyō no bun daiji)
    Importance of being versed in the methods of hiding
  • 御符之事 (Gofu no koto)
    Carrying talismans and charms

There are apparently some advanced teachings, but they aren’t present in the document. Volume 3 gives a sense of taking more direct action, most likely at night, and when the enemy has to be confronted. Liken to the sections labeled “Innin” (陰忍) in Mansenshūkai, these 2 go hand-in-hand outlining tasks and the tools needed for them during different times of the day.

A surprising point one may gather from volumes 1 and 3 is the deliberate mention of using drugs and medicine; there are a good number of them listed that can aid in a shinobi’s mission, which include variations of incapacitating concoctions that render a target compliant in more ways than one. Ingredients for each one, however, are not shared within the current manuscript. Another point worth mentioning is the numerous lighting implements listed. Some are more obvious in application, while a few are left to oral transmission. This shows that the shinobi needed to have a good knowledge of working with fire-based tools and understand how to improvise with natural materials depending on the situation.

What about the 2nd volume? In this part there is a clearer, distinctive listing of the many different points (38 total) on how a shinobi should prepare mentally, how they should act in front of others in order to achieve their goal, the steps one should take when manuevering through a target’s home or territory, using incidents that cause hysteria as a cover to invade, and so on. A good comparison to these use cases would be the Shōninki, for those who are familiar with that manuscript and how indept it goes. Here are the following examples from volume 2:

  • One needs to learn a persona in & out in order for one’s true intentions not to be discovered
  • How to present oneself and win over the family of the house you must get in
  • Add another layer to hide your identity in the case where your current cover is being blown
  • How to deceive people through the use of sound, such as mimicking raindrops
  • The use of starting a fire in a home

There are some surprising topics, such as to never make a sound in situations where you have been hurt, or even on the verge of death. Also, a few of the topics steer towards putting trust in both Shinto and Buddhist beliefs, with one stating to call upon the aid of the Buddhist deity Kannon (観音菩薩) when hiding in the shadows⁴.

BREAKING DOWN THE KENJUTSU DOCUMENT

Now, let’s take a look at the accompanying document, which appears to be a listing of profound insight on kenjutsu. This document is labeled simply as “Hakutei iru” (白丁入ル), which an unusual term concerning martial arts; having more of a ceremonious connotation, in this case it can mean someone coming of age and entering society as an adult, which can be military lifestyle or simply becoming a common. Due to this document being part of the collection under “Yamazaki ryū”, there is speculation that it comes from “Yamazaki ryū Kenjutsu”. Looking at this further, family-run martial systems was common during the Edo period. On the flip side, the number of known families using the Yamazaki surname recorded was few. There was only one known to have been associated with kenjutsu, and their style was derived from Chūjō ryū.

Listing of the 3 Yamazaki families recorded to have their own form of martial arts. The one in the red box is renown for their kenjutsu originating in Chujo ryu. From Bugei Ryuha Daijiten 1963 edition.

Does that mean that this document on kenjutsu (along with the shinobi-related manuscript) belong to this Yamazaki family? Could the contents be linked to Chūjō ryū? While it is a possibility, there is no way to verify this due to no author being mentioned. On top of that, the contents themselves have no real connection to any sword system so to speak; the knowledge here can be viewed as either generic in nature, or interpretation-based strings of words. Depending on the person and their profession, anyone with competent understanding can follow them.

As mentioned earlier, this sword document is not an instructional guide on swordplay, but more like a listing of words of inspiration on a deeper, profound level for one trained in the Japanese sword. One part of it contains 11 uta or “poems” in the form of proverbs. As a whole, the knowledge here doesn’t have any true unique value style-wise, but more practical knowledge to those who are trained to actually fight.

Here’s a few of these poems:

  • Jishōken (自勝剣)
    A unique saying based on the idea of “overcoming one’s weaknesses and obstacles, and ensuring victory through one’s own strength”. This is geared towards swordsmanship.
  • Setsunintō⁵ katsujinken (殺人刀 活人剣)
    2 set of phrases that naturally go together, where your actions while wielding a sword are to help others (katsujinken) in opposition of another person wielding a sword to harm others (setsunintō)⁶.
  • Dokushin dokui (独身独意)
    A simple term, which expresses one to not lose sight of yourself and what you have to achieve. This includes not being sidetracked by others’ matters.
  • Taiyō icchi (体用一致)
    A version of a common lesson regarding “unity as one”, for this phrase dictates you must be in tune with both the body and actions. Through this, one can utilize a sword as if it’s an extention of the body.
  • Dandan shugyo (段々修行)
    An all-around phrase that is applicable in any occupation, a person must strive to achieve higher each day, surpassing even your past self every time. This can be viewed as words of inspiration for the receiver to continue their personal training with the sword.
  • Ishin denshin (以心伝心)
    A common phrase, meaning “expressing oneself without using words”.

While it’s commonplace to call knowledge like these as poems, in truth they tend to lean more towards proverbs. On another note, some of the poems were commonly used in both the martial arts field and Buddhism, due to both having a strong foundation in the concept of Zen (i.e. setsunintō katsujinken).

Screenshot of the Hakutei section, with several of the poems.

The final part of this kenjutsu document is “Ippo furyū“ (一歩不留), which stands for “going forward no matter what”. This section mainly serves as advice on how one should view their training and the type of person they should become, all compiled in 15 points. Here are a few of them below:

  • 剣術ハ闇路をたとる灯の　光のまゝに行ハゆかるゝ
    Kenjutsu should illuminate a path out of darkness, and lead a person to the light
  • 稽古をも真の勝負とつとめなは　実の勝負も常と成へし
    If a person engages in their sword practice as if fighting, then they will be sure to win in a real battle
  • 道理なく気精まかせに余の人と　仕合に勝は盲勝なり
    If you go into battle with a person who relies more on spirit and no reason, obtaining victory will be nothing more than riches falling into your lap

One can view this document as something a person would carry on themselves when not returning to their teacher and their dōjō for a long period of time.

CONCLUSION

We’ll wrap up the summary on this manuscript. As of recent, there are more antiquated documents from Japan’s historical past with unique contents such as this that are coming out from private collections, with researchers investing to bring them to the public light. While some are published in books, others, like this Yamazaki ryū Shinobi no sho, are analyzed and reported in an academic environment. I enjoy collecting those that are readily available and, when time permitting, sharing them here on my blog.

1) This academic report is from the literary collection kept in “Kyōto Institute, Library and Archives” of Rekisaikan in Kyōto City, Japan.

2) It is also categorized as just “Yamazaki ryū”, with the other contents being addressed as “Shinobi no sho” and “Hakutei”.

3) This is tricky to read. Other ways to read this includes “menkō” and “men no muki”.

4) Kannon is a female Buddhist deity worshipped as a savior for people in times of need, or helping them during difficult times that can lead to their doom. She is commonly described as using countless forms to aid people, each which conceal her true self. It’s such an ability of concealment like this that is dotted upon in shinobi-related documents.

5) Can also be read as “satsujintō”, although there are arguments that when this is used the meaning changes to “sword used to commit murder”.

6) There is another profound meaning in Buddhism, where a disciple uses unfavorable methods for harsh training that can later impact them in a negative way (setsunintō). On the other hand, a disciple trains in a progressive manner that has them become a better person as if reborn (katsujinken). For both phrases they are used when one is striving to reach enlightenment, whereas obstacles that prevent this are “cut down” metaphorically through training.

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Looking at Chūjō ryū Techniques

One of coolest things about translating older documents that are related to martial arts is being able to decipher techniques, and compare them with what I’m learning. Some are more descriptive than others, so this is a case by case situation. One document I’ve been working on for some time now is a manual on the techniques from Chūjō ryū (中條流). Known for its swordplay, this manual covers the movements and ideology behind them through kata, accompanied with pretty detailed notes.

Example of 2 Pages from the Chūjō ryū manual.

This article will cover 2 of them, which coincide with techniques associated with Minamoto no Yoshitsune and his claimed short sword skills¹. What is provided here are interpretations of the description for the two kata. Sticking with the methodology associated with Chūjō ryū, I use a short sword liken to a kodachi, and an even shorter sword like a wakizashi.

The first kata is Ko Rannyū (虎乱入). In the manual there are several variations. The one presented here uses 2 swords.

DESCRIPTIONS

  1. Stand with swords in jūmonji formation (low)
  2. Enemy strikes for the face
  3. Block with both swords in jumonji formation
  4. Pull one sword back and stab enemy’s face, then cut down on right hand
  5. Step back and lower swords
  6. Enemy strikes with kesa giri to left shoulder, receive with right hand sword
  7. Direct enemy’s sword down to the side (ukenagashi)
  8. Step to enemy’s left while performing horizontal cut with right hand sword
  9. Circle behind enemy and finish with left hand cut

This is a pretty aggressive kata with 2 swords, which takes dexterity to use simultaneously. Some things to take from it includes the following:

  • Knowing when to block and when to redirect (ukenagashi)
  • Understanding how to create advantageous moments in order to use a free sword

The next kata is Hichō no Kakeri (飛鳥翔). Using a single sword, one moves quickly with agility through the use of an improvised attack.

DESCRIPTIONS

  1. Stand in a normal posture
  2. Draw sword and assume jōdan posture
  3. While maintaining distance, left hand pulls out a small towel from jacket
  4. Throw the towel at the enemy’s face
  5. Leap in and cut down the enemy with followup strike

The movements in kata particularly remind me of popular tales featuring Yoshitsune when he was young, and his use of throwing objects such as his sensu (扇子, fan) to distract his opponents in conjunction with his swordplay. A few words about this particular kata:

  • Make use of any item at hand
  • Followup strike is dependent on the enemy’s reaction to thrown object

From a research perspective, there are always something to take away from old martial arts documentations, and the manual for Chūjō ryū is no different. For myself, who is engaged in kenjutsu training regularly, I find these 2 kata quite informative, especially in the idea of wielding a shorter sword. It’s a shame that I currently could not present both kata with a partner, but I hope that the images, along with the descriptions, are clear enough to follow along.

1) This is in relations to the 2-part discussion on Minamoto no Yoshitsune and his combative knowledge found on this blog. Mention of the 2 kata can be read here.

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Using Extreme Conditioning during Sports

A topic I bring to the table today is the idea of extreme conditions while engaging in physical activities. This can be a range of methods, such as training in unpleasant environments, bearing an unusual amount of load, to lack of fluid consumption for long periods of time. For athletes this is the norm in order to perform at their highest for their country. However, what about those who are not invested in such occupation, but just want to have fun in the activity of choice?

Extreme conditions during sports are an issue in Japan. Kids of all ages face some form of this when they participate in a sports club at school, which can range from long practices under the blazing sun with no cover, to denial of water by their coach. Whether it be tennis, baseball, soccer, judō, or kendō, the idea is for the kids to learn how to develop spirit of endurance, and go the extra mile no matter how taxing the situation is, which can prove critical when seizing victory against other prefectural schools during competition. However, there have been many cases where kids have collapsed due to heat stroke or exhaustion, some of which had led to deaths. My wife explained to me her experience when she was part of the softball team at her school in Japan, where not only was she and her teammates denied wearing a cap to block the sun rays, but weren’t allowed to drink water until practice was done even though they were dehydrated. It was not a pleasant experience for her.  Over the years, efforts by sporting committees in Japan are bringing awareness of how to avoid endangering kids that participate in sports clubs. Still, this is questionable, for the harsh conditions still exist, and the cases of heat stroke during practices still occur, albeit few.

Essentials for beating the heat
Simple items like a bottle of water and portable fan are essential for recovery during grueling training sessions. From Photo-AC.

From my standpoint, extreme conditions have their purpose, especially for those who are invested in it to excel at their chosen activity, and are monitored by staff or companions, (i.e. a manager, a medical team, etc.) ensuring they progress safely. This can be done in moderation, so that the individual can grow. Kids shouldn’t be forced to endure such harsh conditions to the point it leaves long-lasting injuries. A lot of responsibility has to be taken when putting people through training with extreme conditions. For me, in my pursuit to study martial arts, I took the plunge and engaged in this as much as I could.

During my teenage years, my mentality towards budō was old-fashioned, thinking that a person on this path trains to be as fit as a warrior. Through research, I adapted a rigorous training regiment, along with other forms of conditioning outside of training. One in particular included not drinking water during 2+ hrs of training. I spent many years doing this with no issues, which further cemented the idea of such extreme training as fine. During my college years, I met others with the same ideologies as me, whom would become my training brothers, and would engage in long training sessions together, pushing ourselves to be the best. As an example, there were times when we would meet early in the morning on a weekend and travel to a park in a different borough while I was still living in NYC. There, we would have a long training session, which included running on a path hidden in foliage and scaling the side of a rocky surface to strengthen our fingers. This normally lasted over 2 hours. Having no drinks with us, we would have to make our way to the local store which, depending on how deep we were in the park, could take as long as 20 minutes to get there.

One day, when I was having a particular conversation related to martial arts with one of my training brothers, we hit on a topic about our experience with interacting with others who weren’t part of our group. Seeing that my views were abit one-sided, he responded to one of my statements in a manner like, “people have their own reasons to studying, and you shouldn’t always expect others to want to train for the same purpose as you.” At the time, I acknowledged the remark, but still held on to my own views as law.

A little later, after joining a dojo and training with many practitioners from all walks of life, I learned there was more to life than just training to be a “warrior”; interacting with others with varying views and values from mine, along with different purposes in their pursuit to studying martial arts helped to make me more open-minded. Not everyone is training for duels to the death, carry on the tradition of a specific style until they die with unwavering dedication, or even conditioning themselves to surpass limits as if going to war…which is fine. Quite frankly, we live in a time where such devotion is not a necessity to survive; on the contrary, it is more of a personal endeavor, one that I have embraced, but need not expect those around me to do the same.

Coming to this understanding was a good thing overall, as it made me more responsible when taking others under my wing. When I started my training group years later, I created an environment where students can immerse themselves in the martial arts, but also being mindful of everyone’s capacity. For example, after a period of rigorous practice, I would add breaktime where students can take 5 mins to catch their breath, ask questions, take a water break, and so on. If practice was indoors, I ensured that we had plenty of ventilation and, if the room got excessively hot, would turn on whatever cooling system we had on hand. Also, if during practice someone needed water to stay parched, I didn’t hesitate to allow them to step away and get a drink. In a dual fashion, the option to tough it out was there, but wasn’t forced onto students. My hopes were that each would develop endurance overtime, and slowly go pass their limitations. I encouraged this through various training methods, but was still mindful not to force this ideology outright in the group as a must-do.

In closing this topic, there’s a time when we should push ourselves during physical activities. Some people relish in this, while others are grateful when their coach or team pushes them hard to excel. Subjecting people of any age to extreme conditions without any regard to their health and safety, especially when signs of deterioration is evident, is wrong. Gradual strengthening over time can produce favorable results. While I see value in training to get better through specific forms of extreme conditioning, I believe they should be used with responsibility.

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Yoshitsune’s Treasure Trove of Knowledge ~ Part 2

Here’s part 2 of our discussion on Minamoto no Yoshitsune, and the continuation on analyzing his skills and techniques. A bigger conversation than his sword fighting techniques or types of weapons owned falls on his iconic strategies used during his military career. Since the battles he and his followers took place in are seen as revolutionary and unsurpassable for it’s time, much attention has been placed on studying them. In fact, it can be said that they inspired other generals and strategists to follow in suit and use similar tactics throughout Japan’s history.

This article will cover the military tactics Yoshitsune used in actual war campaigns, as described in novels and memoirs from the past. Along with this will be writings that set the foundation of his prowess, as well as how other groups pay tribute to his tactics within their own methods.

HIGHLIGHTS OF YOSHITUNE’S TACTICS USED IN BATTLE

The following tactics are from Yoshitsune’s life experience through warring against the Taira clan. These have been recorded and retold through sources such as “Heike Monogatari” (平家物語), “Azuma Kagami” (吾妻鏡), and “Gikeiki” (義経記).

An artwork entitled, “Ichi-no-tani gosen Hiyodori-goe yori Suto-no-ura o miru zu” (一ノ谷合戦 ひよ鳥越より江戸の浦を見る図) Featured here is Yoshitsune and his group laying hidden, in preparation for an ambush. By Utagawa Kuniyoshi. From ukiyoe.com.
  • Ambushes & surprise attacks: An example of Yoshitsune relying on guerilla-style warfare can be seen during the battle at Ichi-no-tani (一ノ谷) in the 3rd month of 1184, where he and his army ambushed an already defeated Taira clan from a prior skirmish. While the opposition was descending down a rather steep side of a mountain heading towards the western coast to board their ships and regroup, Yoshitsune’s surprise attack was swift and unexpected, as he and his group hid in areas around the mountain that appeared untouched for ages, then storming out from these unexpected angles. He also incorporated fire attacks around the mountain, adding to the chaos. Caught off guard, the Taira clan retreated hastily down the cliff in an effort to escape and rushed to their ships, with those unfortunate either being slain by the ambush, or drowning to death.
  • Deception tactics: In the 2nd month of 1185, the Minamoto and Taira were set to go into battle against each other at Yashima (屋島). In preparations against the Taira’s much larger army whom tried to embark on the island quietly, Yoshitsune set ablaze the homes in a town called Furutakamatsu (古高松) not too far from the opposing side, and raised many white flags. This was all to make it seem that the Minamoto had a very large army of their own. The Taira force fell for this deception, causing them to retreat back to their boats and flee for their lives.
  • Advantageous retreats: During the 4th month of 1185, the Heike and Minamoto clashed in their final battle in the sea at Dan-no-Ura (壇ノ浦). Each side were locked in grueling fights while on small boats. At one point, Yoshitsune is challenged by the a fierce opponent named Taira no Noritsune (平教経), who makes his way onboard. Not taking the chance, Yoshitsune retreats by leaping from his boat onto another comrade’s boat. He supposedly repeated this until he gained enough distance from Noritsune, around 8 times. Along with putting distance between them, Yoshitsune forces Noritsune to venture deeper within the Minamoto side, if he chooses to follow. This amazing feat is nicknamed “Hassō Tobi” (八艘飛び), or “8-Boats Leaping”¹.
  • Breaking protocols of war: During the sea battle at Dan-no-Ura, the Taira forces used local oarsmen to pilot their small boats while the warriors focused on fighting as they closed in on the warriors of the Minamoto army, giving them the advantage. There was an unspoken rule to not attack non-combatants, which included oarsmen. However, Yoshitsune ordered his troops to aim for the oarsmen and shoot them dead with their bows. This order was carried out, eliminating Taira’s mobility, and forcing them to deal with the unyielding close quarter skills of the Minamoto force. This unethical tactical approach is nicknamed “Kinji Te” (禁じ手)².
An artwork showing Yoshitsune using his signature “Hassō Tobi” skill to leap away from his enemy. From a dice game featuring a collage of scenes from Yoshitsune’s life called “Yoshitsune Ichidai Kunkō Sugoroku (義経一代勲功双六). By Utagawa Yoshikazu. From Wikimedia Commons.

These four battlefield strategies are seen as not only revolutionary at the time of use, but they go against the grain in what was considered standardized, universally expected protocols when going into war. To many, Yoshitsune’s methods were seen as unrefined, barbaric, and dirty. Yet, they demonstrate an intellectual, free-minded approach that got the job done for the greater purpose. In the end, the strategies of Yoshitsune are said to have a strong influence on the development of warfare in Japan years after his death³.

THE SECRET CONTENTS OF TORA NO MAKI

A pic of a large scroll of Tora no maki. First part, featuring a “Tenbatsu Reibun” (天罰礼文), a promissory note to uphold the contents, or face divine punishment.

Another highly acclaimed source of knowledge goes to one called “Tora no maki” (虎の巻)⁴. This is said to be a documentation of important methods for success. While this is normally referenced to while speaking about Minamoto no Yoshitsune, there are some points that need a bit of clarity, not only to get the full picture of this secret knowledge, but to properly understand which of these is being referenced. There are actually two Tora no maki documents that are connected to him, one while he was at Kurama Temple, and another after his accomplishments.

#1. Yoshitsune’s Secret Teachings on War Strategies

Let’s talk about the one that comes after his success as a general first. A documentation bearing numerous titles including “Yoshitsune Tora no Maki” (義経虎の巻), and “Hyōhō Tora no Maki” (兵法虎の巻)⁵, this documentation has a great emphasis on esoteric methods such as the use of Kuji no hō (九字の法) and Jūji (十字). To elaborate further, Kuji no hō, or “9-Hand Seals”, is a method of energy-attuning through the use of 9-syllable mudras and mantras, while Jūji, or “10th-Seal” is a tenth component of this method to activate the desired result. These are methods widely associated with Mikkyō (密教) and Shugendō (修験道), both a form of esoteric Buddhism, while different groups have made use of these methods, which includes military commanders, strategists, and practitioners of ninjutsu.

The ritualistic methods of using Kuji no hō is for the sake of protection, as well as preparing for battle that coincides with how the Japanese fought battles around the Kamakura period. This is explained in different sections regarding a multitude of situations one can face and how to handle them. Here are some of them.

  • 軍場出作法事 = Preparations for heading out to the battlefield
  • 敵打行時酒飲作法之叓 = Performing a sake ritual when leaving to eradicate the enemy
  • 軍神送時聲作ル作法事 = How to evoke protection from the God of War
  • 甲冑箭不融秘術之事 = Secret method for making one’s armor arrow-proof
  • 魔録者切秘術之叓 = The enchantment done by the conjuror
  • 神道弓作事 = Secret technique for crafting a Shintō bow

There are numerous versions of this particular Tora no maki, with no indication as to which is the original version. Many of them are replicas of another, and distributed for different purposes. Can the contents of this Tora no maki truly be linked to Yoshitsune? This is one area I can’t give a definitive answer, but due to its popularity, many have viewed this as valuable enough to want to collect and learn from.

From the pages of “Yoshitsune no Tora no maki – Hyōhō Hijutsu” (義経虎巻 兵法秘術), which features descriptions on how to handle varying situations, and ending with mantras that are accompanied with hand seals (left). Also included are arranging specific environments for the sake of auspicious practices (right).

#2. The Tiger Strategy book

The next type of of Tora no Maki is the one that originated from China, and which came into Yoshitsune’s hands through Kiichi Hōgen, one of his teachers at Kurama Temple. This is not its official label, nor is it a single documentation of its own; rather, it is like a volume from a larger documentation called simply “Rikutō” (六韜)⁶, or ” Six Secret Teachings” in English. The author of this is Jiang Ziya, a figure who was hailed as being a wise and talented general during the Zhou Dynasty. It is often identified as part of an important collection of Chinese-developed classical war stratagems, which includes the military text by Sun Tzu’s widely known as “Art of War”, and the thesis on civil, political, and war strategies known as “Thirty-Six Stratagems”. In the Six Secret Teachings, there are 6 books, so to speak, that make it a complete package.

  • 文韜 = Civil Strategy
  • 武韜 = Military Strategy
  • 龍韜 = Dragon Strategy
  • 虎韜 = Tiger Strategy
  • 豹韜 = Leopard Strategy
  • 犬韜 = Dog Strategy

Each book covers a vast amount of topics, from the perspective of Jiang Ziya taking the role as an advisor to King Wen, who would ask about various topics of concern, then receiving advice with great insight. These topics were compiled and centered around a specific theme that makes up each book. The Tiger Strategy book, or Tiger book for short, covers scenarios concerning war and combat. The following are the topics in the Tiger book, along with a brief outline of their contents.

  • 軍用 = Inventory of your army’s weapons and tools
  • 三陳 = Three battle formations
  • 疾戦 = Swiftly surrounding the opposition
  • 必出 = Escaping an enemy’s encirclement
  • 軍略 = Strategies on army deployment
  • 臨鏡 = Skirmishes within another territory’s borders
  • 動静 = Halting an enemy’s covert actions after gathering intel
  • 金鼓 = Knowing when to advance and retreat (nicknamed “utilizing war gongs and drums”)
  • 絶道 = Tactics when communications have been cut off
  • 略地 = Territorial invasion
  • 火戦 = Military prowess through the use of fire
  • 壘虚 = Uncovering the specifics about the enemy’s encampment

To summarize the Tiger book, it closely covers tactics on the battlefield, from understanding one’s own strengths, use of guerilla warfare, performing fast maneuvers with an army, to using fire attacks. Yoshitsune’s battlefield tactics closely resembles what is discussed in this book, thus thought to be the prime inspiration for his style of fighting, and in turn, making his campaigns very successful. Although part of a bigger collection, since the topics of the Tiger book focuses solely on military prowess and going into battle, it actually can be a stand-alone in its own rights.

Pic of the 1st pages in the Tiger Strategy section from the Six Secret Teachings, written in Chinese.

How did such a foreign writing get associated with Yoshitsune? First, we must understand that many cultural influences were brought over from China for several centuries during Japan’s prehistoric times. Although this would slow down at some point, literature from China, including documents on war, would continue to be a source of interest as Japan became more enthralled in war and conflict during the Heian and Kamakura periods. However, something like the Six Secret Teachings was a scarce material, only accessible by few of high status, or those who had some form of connection with those who make the journey to trade with China. Kiichi is portrayed as not your ordinary monk, and probably had connections in order to gain a copy of the Six Secret Teachings…or maybe just the Tiger book?

In historical chronicles like Gikeiki, it’s explained that Yoshitsune was able to read the Tiger book behind Kiichi’s back⁷. So, it’s possible that this was the only volume that Kiichi possessed…or maybe he did have all 6 books, but the most interesting one to Yoshitsune was the Tiger book?

MEANING BEHIND USING THE “YOSHITSUNE” LABEL

Let’s revisit the phenomenon where tribute to Minamoto no Yoshitsune’s legacy is given through concepts compiled and passed down as a form of working method. One of the more obvious representations of this can be found in particular martial arts styles that use the name “Yoshitsune” in their title.

Pics of the cover of “Iga Nin Hi no kan” (いが忍火之巻) (left), and a page describing a torch-like device called “Yoshitsune no Hi” (義経火) (right).

Outside of Yoshitsune Tora no maki and the many versions out there with similar contents, these martial arts styles have scrolls, manuscripts, and the like with listings of skills and/or techniques for combat, or “secret” teachings. Many of these styles are shitsuden (失伝), which means they are no longer active due to no current successor, indicating the lineage has ended. Are the contents genuinely linked to him? It is hard to say yes. While there are those that are paying recognition to his skills and tactics, there are others that use his name just to bolster the image of their style. This isn’t unusual, for this became a common practice from the Edo period onward.

Let’s take one, titled “Yoshitsune ryū Jūjutsu” (義経流柔術). This manual was written around the Edo period, and comes from the collection of the late Tokugawa Muneyoshi, a 2nd Lieutenant of the Imperial Japanese Army. Outside of the standard hand-to-hand fighting and grappling techniques, from what I understand, there were unique training methods within this style, which includes developing strong & agile legs through jumping out from a deep hole in the ground. As special as this sounds, it’s actually a focus many other jūjutsu systems adopted, even around the same time. Being a hand-to-hand system, it’s safe to say that Yoshitsune ryū Jūjutsu has no real connection to Yoshitsune. Is it just a case where this system has “Yoshitsune” tagged in the title to attract attention? Possibly so. However, it is also thought that this system was inspired by the many heroic tales of Yoshitsune and how he handled opponents with swift movements, which may have influenced this style to go in the same direction with their fighting techniques…or at least stand out amongst other jūjutsu schools.

Pics from Mansenshukai (満川集海), vol. 21 entitled, “Ninki” (忍器) (left). On page 15, a fire technique called “Yoshitsune Mizu Kagari-bi” (義経水炬火) (right).

There are also those documents that are military/wartime-centric, where the focus is on larger environments and combat against groups and survival are of greater importance. The types of documents, whether in the form of manuals or scrolls, pay tribute to Yoshitsune’s fighting methods by simply referring to it.

Let’s take “Mansenshukai” (満川集海) as an example. Being a renown collection of skills and teachings associated with ninjutsu, there are a few techniques that are tributed to Yoshitsune. There’s one called “Yoshitsune Mizu Kagari-bi” (義経水炬火), which is a special torch used in water environments. Another document is “Iga Kajutsu no maki” (伊賀火術の巻), which is a ninjutsu manual possessing a collection of skills used by those from the Iga region. Here, we see a technique called “Yoshitsune no Hi” (義経火), which is described as a form of handheld torch. Manuals like these that have skills concerning fire seem to have been inspired by the strategies used by Yoshitsune and his followers during battles against the Taira clan. This includes a particular impromptu skirmish at Mikusayama, Harima Province⁸ in 1184, where Yoshitsune devised torches which were used by him and his followers to set ablaze the fields and the shrubbery around a nearby mountain to not only halt Taira troops that were moving at night to group up, but foil them from amassing into a large army that would have otherwise overwhelm the Minamoto force if they clashed the following day⁹.

CONCLUSION

We come to the end on this 2-part series on Minamoto no Yoshitsune, and the numerous recorded combat knowledge that contribute to his legacy. With his life experiences and the tools used recorded within the pages of history, and expanded on as new information is uncovered, there’s no slowing down in how he remains popular with each new generation…not just in Japan, but worldwide. It’s safe to say that having access to all this knowledge is a way of having a strong connection to this famous general, whether they were actually devised by him, or emulated from descriptions of his exploits.

1) Another thought is that he jumped a distance of about 8-boats length. Interpretation can go either way based on a few factors. For example, these boats the warriors were fighting on were small ones like skiffs, and not the size of ships. If we read into this and imagine Yoshitsune jumping a great distance to escape, while onlookers are dazzled by his great feat that they liken the jump distance to being able to cross over 8 small boats, then yes this could make sense. Still, the popular opinion is not the jump distance, but the agility to leap repeatedly from numerous boats, which shows great skills and endurance especially since Yoshitsune was wearing full armor.

2) This word is also used in competitive matches or games. Based on interpretation, Kinji Te can be translated as either “forbidden tactic” or “dirty move”.

3) It is said that, due to failing relations with his half brother Yoritomo after the Minamoto gained control over the Capital, Yoshitsune was forced to commit suicide after being overwhelmed by an unexpected attack and betrayed by Fujiwara no Yasuhira, an indivudual who swore to protect him. However, there are other claims that Yoshitsune actually escaped and survived, with one even stating he sailed out to Mongolia and changed his name to a famous conqueror Genghis Khan!

4) Tora no maki is an old word, but its meaning has evolved over the years. Originally it referred to secret teachings and methodologies concerning combat on a very large scale, such as on the battlefield. Over the centuries, the term was slowly being used for not just martial arts, but areas related to the arts and crafts as a whole, such as flower arrangement and the like. In modern times, Tora no maki evolved to also mean secret tips or hints to better a person in various fields, which is especially common in the educational field, where it is used to aid students in their studies, exams, and the like.

5) Pronounced “Liu Tao” in Chinese.

6) There are even those that are callled “Kiichi Hōgen Hyōhō Tora no maki” (鬼一法眼兵法虎之巻), “Kiichi Hōgen Sanryaku” (鬼一法眼三略), and other similar naming convention. Despite Yoshitsune’s teacher’s name is used here, for the most part, the contents are in line with other variants, although how they are presented may be written in a different format. A good example of this is the one kept at the temple Kuramadera. This can be viewed online here.

7) How Yoshitsune acquired the Tiger book differs between sources. One of the more interesting ones is how Yoshitsune was able to sway the daughter of Kiichi Hōgen to take the Tora no maki and deliver it to him in secret.

8) Present day Katōshi City, Hyōgo Prefecture.

9) As told in the 9th volume of Heike Monogatari, in the section entitled, “Mikusa no Gassen” (三草合戦).

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Yoshitsune’s Treasure Trove of Knowledge ~ Part 1

Minamoto no Yoshitsune is a name many are familiar with. Being an actual historical figure, Yoshitsune is elevated to legendary status through his exploits as a warrior during a chaotic period where 2 sides engaged in war over control of Japan. His exploits have been documented and retold through numerous mediums, from written records, theatrical performances, to TV shows. His fame has reached modern times, for even if you are not so versed in Japanese history, there are chances that you have come across his name in pop culture, which includes comics and video games.

Yoshitsune is viewed as a protégé in both martial arts and military affairs, which is a large appeal to many. In fact, many have made strides to keep alive, albeit few, his knowledge of combat. This extends to martial arts styles that not only give credit to him, but have skills and instructions accredited to his documented combat sense. These attempts are even visible in the scrolls of defunct styles (most of which were devised centuries later during Edo period), some of which are named after him, as the contents claim to be of instructions of his fighting style. While it’s safe to say that Yoshitsune himself didn’t create any style of his own, his exploits were vividly recorded where they may have given inspiration to others to develop similar techniques and strategies. How much of his legacy was preserved? Let’s proceed with the following discussions below.

Painting of Yoshitsune training with the great Tengu monk Sōjōbō on Mt. Kurama. By Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.

MYRIAD OF WEAPONS

Out of the pages of official records such as Azuma Kagami (吾妻鏡), as well as war chronicles like Gikeiki (義経記), are the names of strategies, techniques, and weapons Yoshitsune used in his illustrious career.

Yoshitsune’s combat experience heavily weighs on kenjutsu, which he was proficient in from a young age. The source of his swordplay stems from Kurama Temple on Mt. Kurama, the source of knowledge for all established sword schools in Japan, where he stayed for several years during his youth. From Kurama Temple hails the famous style “Kyōhachi ryū” (京八流), which is said to contain methods of swordplay and other strategies spread througout Japan through 8 disticnt schools, with Yoshitsune’s thought to be the first.

Before going through specific techniques, let’s examine actual weapons Yoshitsune once wielded when he was alive. Keep in mind that some of these are either claimed to be of his possession, or are recreations.

A snapshot of the collection at Kurama Temple’s website. For reference only.

#1: Kuruma dachi / Sha dachi (車太刀)
DIMENSION: ???
MAKER: ???
Although identified as a tachi (battlefield sword), it doesn’t come even close to the standard length of one. This aligns more to the length of a kodachi (short sword) that would normally be worn alongside with a tachi. However, what sets this apart from the normal kodachi is the unusually wide curve generally found on a tachi. Used since his youth, it’s thought that its short length allowed Yoshitsune to utilize fast, agile, and graceful movements, which allowed him to outbest others in duels or fights. Not as long as a standard tachi, it’s also not so short where it has no reach similar to a knife, setting it as a versatile weapon against any opponent. This balance in both length and versatility was adopted by other sword schools associated with the swordplay from Mt. Kurama, which includes sets of techniques and strategies against those with longer swords being taught.

This sword is currently in the safekeeping at Kurama Temple (鞍馬寺, Kuramadera). No pictures are allowed to be taken while visiting, so outside of the actual website for the temple, it’s difficult to see in greater details online.

#2: Usumidori (薄緑)
LENGTH: around 80cm
MAKER: Chōen (長円)
This is a sword that has no concrete origins. Believed to have been first mentioned in the war chronicle Heike Monogatari (平家物語) as “Tsurugi no Maki” (剣巻), it’s speculated to have been in the possession of the Minamoto family for quite a bit of time. In fact, some believe that it was passed down within the Minamoto family for several generations alongside with other swords, such as Higegiri (髭切). Depending on the source, it goes under numerous names as it is used in different scenarios not just by Yoshitsune, but his half brother Minamoto no Yoritomo as well, such as Hizamaru (膝丸). Nowadays, this sword is recognized under the label “Usumidori”.

This is often labeled as Yoshitsune’s favorite sword. Depending on the source, the length of Usumidori is measured about 80cm. It is a sword he’s said to have carried on his person since his youth after he received it during his stay at Kurama Temple. Various documents reference this…however it is known by numerous names.

To make matters even more confusing, there are apparently 3 sources that claim to have the authentic Usumidori. One of these sources is a private collector by the name of Ishijima Morio (石島護雄).

#3: Naginata (薙刀)
MAKER: unknown (unsigned)
While not normally associated with him, Yoshitsune is said to have been adept with a naginata. There’s really not much info on the actual naginata itself, nor about the instances he used it while in battle.

It is kept at the shrine Ōyamazumi Jinja (大山祇神社) in Imabari City, Aichi Prefecture, which is the same location where Yoshitsune’s loyal retainer, Musashibō Benkei’s famed giant naginata is. Unfortunately, photography of it appears to not be allowed, thus why there’s no pictures of it up on the Internet to easily review it.¹

#4: Ima no Tsurugi (今剣)
LENGTH: 18 ~ 24 cm²
MAKER: Munechika (Sanjō)
This is a bladed weapon that is thought to have been in use between the Nanboku period and the Muromachi period. Mentioned in the Gikeiki as Yoshitsune’s beloved sword, it is stated to once have been a very long sword³ received from one of the priests at Kurama temple when he was younger. However, it appears to have survived into today’s generation the length of a tantō. Why the drastic difference in length? One thought is that there was an error in how it was documented, where the length being written as “6尺5寸” (around 197 cm) should’ve been written as “6寸5分” (around 24 cm). This could be the case, especially since it’s also documented as being the blade used to commit suicide.

While it was deemed as missing for several centuries, this Ima no Tsurugi was reported as found in Mutsu City, Aomori Prefecture in 2015, then went on display for public viewing in 2016.

#5: Tomonari-saku no tantō (友成作の短刀)
MAKER: Tomonari (友成)
An unnamed blade, only recognized by the swordmaker’s name on the tang. Believed to be the product of a swordsmith of the Ko-Bizen line. While not much details in sword-related documents like Chōkyō Meizukushi (長享銘尽), it is thought to actually be the length of a tantō, or a very short sword that would align closer to a knife.

Outside of it being documented, this weapon is currently lost in history.

#6: Nodachi (野太刀)
MAKER: ???
A very long battlefield sword, it is claimed that Yoshitsune used this particular one in battle, which is in the collection at Kurama Temple. In fact, there are two present, one for Yoshitsune, and the other for Benkei. Like many of the antiquated items there, no photos or further details online other than what is present on Kurama Temple’s website, so currently no way to prove this claim.

#7: Minamoto no Yoshitsune no chōshin tachi (義経朝臣太刀)
MAKER: ???
When Yoshitsune was appointed by the Imperial court his position as General, this tachi may have been acquired to signify his position. Appearing to be of the general length of a long sword, it is also adorned lavishly. One of the treasures said to be of Yoshitsune’s, it is in the possession of Kuramadera, which is visible online. There is also a note that it was restored, which can be interpreted in many ways. Apart from this, no other information about this sword.

One thing to note is, outside of the naginata, almost all of the swords mentioned (especially the ones deemed as a candidate for being his most cherished blade during his youth) are pretty short in length. Most are described as being either the length of a shorter tachi or fitting the image of an actual kodachi. This is probably to align with Yoshitsune’s portrayal as both graceful and elusive with his swordplay, and occassionally incorporating small items to distract his opponents before taking them down. This idea was further followed by the other sword schools part of Kyōhachi ryū, where specific forms and strategies evolved around using a shorter sword. One lingering question regarding all this would be, “which one is the real sword of Yoshitsune during his youth”? It’s highly possible that all these short swords are one in the same, with varying dimensions details to the appearance, and stem from the same documented sources. However, we can’t disregard the idea that many of them may just be recreations, since there are so many that claim they have in possession the “real deal”.

SWORD TECHNIQUES

Looking further into his sword skills, there are few scenes from where Yoshitsune’s fighting style is presented in details. There is one particular incident where, after his coming of age⁴, he sets off from Kurama Temple, descends the mountain, and accompanies a traveling gold merchant who’s familiar with his father. It is from here that Yoshitsune comes upon a large gang of thieves led by an individual identified as Kumasaka Chōhan (熊坂長範)⁵. Despite being outnumbered, Yoshitsune was able to skillfully defeat Chōhan and his criminal gang thanks to his quality training at Kurama Temple.

A scene from the theatrical performance “Eboshi Ori”, with a young actor playing as “Minamoto no Yoshitsune” (right) battling against another actor taking the role of “Kumasaka Chōhan” (left). Can be viewed on YouTube.

In certain sources, there were a few sword techniques presented as being used during the battle. Particularly, there is a theatrical rendition called “Eboshi Ori” (烏帽子折), which is said to give visual details of these techniques in action. The following are those said techniques below:

  • Kiri no Hō (霧の法)
  • Kotaka no Hō (小鷹の法)
  • Shishi Funjin (獅子奮迅)
  • Ko Rannyū (虎乱入)
  • Hichō no Kakeri (飛鳥翔)

Here’s some explanations regarding each of these techniques.

Kiri no Hō / Kotaka no Hō: These 2 are not necessarily specified attacks, for it is said that they don’t appear in scrolls of classical sword schools that have connections to the swordplay of Kyōhachi ryū. Instead, they are more like higher-level methods of combat, as the names became more commonly used in martial arts schools from Edo period onward. This doesn’t mean there’s any actual relations to Yoshitsune, per say.

Shishi Funjin / Ko Rannyū / Hichō no Kakeri: These 3 are names of actual sword techniques. While one would be suspicious of these techniques being real, in truth there are sword schools such as Shintō ryū and Chūjō ryū that actually have one or more of these techniques listed as part of their curriculum. For the 1st and 2nd techniques, their movements are more aggressive in nature, while the 3rd technique represents much agile, elusive movements⁶. These techniques, from their respectful systems, don’t directly reflect what is presented in the Eboshi Ori theatrical play, though. One can view this as the director of this performance possibly consulting with a particular school(s), and only gaining inspiration from the information that was shared.

To the right, a picture scroll of techniques from Kage ryū, with the top labeled “Shishi Funjin”. From the right, a page from a manual of Chūjō ryū, with descriptions for “Ko Rannyū”.

Whether the movements shown in the performance for each technique are the same in execution to the sources they come from or not, the fact that there is this connection between different kenjutsu ryūha is one of the reasons why Kyōhachi ryū is thought to have been real. At the very least, it can be thought that the essence of the techniques themselves, said to be drawn from Yoshitsune’s swordplay style, are inspirations for each kenjutsu ryūha.

CONCLUSION

Just by covering more tangible points such as weapons and fighting techniques, we get an idea of how much impact Minamoto no Yoshitsune, drawing the attention of many who became fans of his story. While his life history is fairly grounded, novel-like stories and live performanaces retelling about his past often present him and his abilities bigger than life, thus the large collection of weapons all claimed to be that very one he grew up with. As for sword techniques, martial arts schools hold their link to his legacy through just the few mentioned, and retain them as proof of the validity of Kyōhachi ryū. This concludes part 1 here. We’ll pick up with part 2 in the next article, which will cover topics including recorded strategies, and martial systems & battle skills that bear Yoshitsune’s namesake.

1) I have managed to find one picture online, but since it is from someone else’s social media account, I decline posting it here.

2) I’ve seen it reported as 18 cm, as well as about 24 cm. The difference in length could be that one is for the length of the blade alone (from tip to base, right before the tang), and the other measuring the entire sword length (including the tang).

3) It is estimated that Yoshitsune left Kurama Temple between the age 15 ~ 16.

4) This is ōdachi (大太刀) in Japanese, which is generally described as a sword much longer than a regular battlefield sword (ie. tachi) of that time period.

5) Depending on the source, the gang leader’s name varies. In some cases, such as Gikeiki, a name is not mentioned.

6) Animals are part of these techniques’ names, which seem to indication the type of movements that would be involved. Shishi Funjin has “lion”, Ko Rannyū has “tiger”, while Hichō no Kakeri has “flyig bird”.

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Honwaza: Importance of Preserving Base Forms

Over the years, I’ve put out a few articles regarding the importance of working on kihon gata (基本形), or basic techniques, for kobudō, as one would have a difficult road proceeding forward without a solid foundation these develop. Now I want to go into a little about kata (形), or forms with preset movements, which are next in the journey of learning a Japanese martial art. Just like basic techniques, one must take the same approach and work hard on what would be the basic for forms, in order to properly learn the methodology of one’s martial system.

A term found in traditional Japanese systems is “honwaza” (本技). What does honwaza mean? This label is used to identify kata that are base forms. Honwaza is used a good deal when working with kata (形), a well known term for forms used in most of Japanese martial arts. Depending on the martial art school, there may be different terms used to identify forms, such as sei (勢), or gyō (業). In the end, they represent the same concept of forms to learn a school’s methodology.

Why are base forms so important? For starters, they are the vehicles for learning one’s selected martial system; from principles, strategies, to techniques, a base form is constructed as the prime instruction for this. Also, base forms are built on the basic techniques one learns at the start of one’s martial journey, so they become another method of refining those core skills, and enhancing one’s overall ability. Of course, if one’s basics are not cemented properly, then base forms will expose this, for you will find difficulties in performing them as instructed.

Along with base forms, there are “variation” forms that accompany them in order flesh out a student’s understanding of their martial system. Falling under specific terms such as henka (変化), ura gata (裏形), sayū jōge (左右上下), and so on, these variations are taught at different stages depending on when students have achieved an adequate understanding of said base forms. These variation forms are necessary for teaching options in specific situations, from utilizing different movements, techniques, and so forth, adding more tools to one’s repetoire. While there is a lot to be taken from these, understand that they do not replace the importance of base forms. For starters, variation forms, while necessary for further instructions in one’s martial system, may not fully “teach” key methodologies or principles clearly without understanding the original. While some variation forms may differ from the base form in simply a few movements or the technique used to defeat one’s opponent, others may change early in the form and use a strategy that veers away a considerable amount from the original. Then there are those cases where the variation form does not resemble the basic form at all.

Let’s take a kata from Kukishin ryu Bōjutsu called “Sashi Ai” as an example. In the base form, after several sequences, when our opponent raises their sword to strike, we react by crouching low and swinging our bō upwards into our opponent’s lower area. There is a lot to unpack here even just by focusing on this simple movement of taking a low profile against a high strike. Now, let’s compare with a similar version of this kata, but instead we step to the side, and lower one’s stance while thrusting the tip of our bō to the opponent’s face. It can be stated that this alternative movement is equally effective as the base form. However, it deviates by using different movements that change certain key elements, such as distance, timing, and positioning. Alternative movements in a kata like so may not utilize core fundamentals that are part of the identity of a martial art, but instead introduce supplemental lessons in the event a situation changes based on the opponent’s movements, thus why this is labeled as a variation form.

In truth, all versions of kata are important, whether it be the base form or a variation. However, since the base form usually represents the identity of a martial system, full details of it, whether in the form of visuals or specific lessons, may be held back. In its place, a variation can be openly presented…which in turn is a strategic decision of its own. Here’s a scenario to which variation forms are chosen over base forms. During a public demonstration, a school may choose to use a variation form with many changes from the original. This keeps the core principles of the martial system safe, not exposing the key components, so those viewers who see just the variation form and choose to copy it won’t be able to steal the most critical points. From another angle, those same viewers could later turn around and openly declare they too have learned a specific martial system in order to draw unsuspecting students by demonstrating the variation form they saw, saying it’s the real deal. Of course, legitimate schools can expose them as lying, revealing them as frauds.

In ending, the idea of honwaza, or base forms, being a key component of one’s growth in martial arts is on the same level as learning, establishing, and refining one’s foundation through fundamental skills. Base forms can be thought of as a form of treasure, which should be preserved even when you have mastered all that there is to learn in the martial system you dedicate yourself to. While there is no love lost for legitimate schools that present only variation form so long as within inner circles they are acknowledged as truly knowing the original, it still holds true the importance of ensuring that base forms are preserved accurately in order to continue being an essential tool for proper learning.

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Standard Bō Techniques During the 19th century

The image of kōryu bujutsu, or traditional martial arts, is a collection of systems predating Edo period that are exclusive, with each bearing unique, signature methodology and techniques. While there’s some truth to this, the reality is that many of them were born from preceeding systems, so there will be some level of universal skills.  This becomes even more apparent once Japan is unified under the Tokugawa shogunate, where there was more accessibility to studying multiple styles, cultural exchange between complying schools took place, and competitive meets between different schools became increasingly the norm. At some point, before the 1900s, most martial systems had a level of shared knowledge, with a separation through each respected schools’ methodology, approach, and history.

Recently I reviewed a post-Edo documentation that supports this movement. Bearing an unusually long title of “Enden ryū yari naginata, Sekiguchi ryū iai, Hōen ryū Heihō, dōryū iai, dōryū bō” (圓傳流鎗長刀 關口流居合 方圓流兵法 同流居合 同流棒), it’s a listing of specific techniques from Japanese martial systems that have become a standard of sorts as of 1841, which is the same date it was written. One can view this as a development according to the more social-bureacratic structure, where martial arts was interjected into society steadily in a form of recreation, giving it a purpose on a business level. This document covers certain techniques from a specific number of disciplines, including kenjutsu, sōjutsu, iai, and bōjutsu. What piqued my interest the most was the bōjutsu section, since there’s a great number of schools that have a bōjutsu curriculum, it’ll be fun to piece their similarities..

To the left, the cover of the documentation. To the right, the listing of standard bō techniques, found on page 13.

Today I want to go over this short list of techniques for bōjutsu that are pointed to as being standardized techniques. One of the challenges here includes understanding the technique listed by the name; while many systems may share the same technique by application on a fundamental level, it is not uncommon for the technique to bear different names.

Jōdan (上段)

While this is a common term for something that is high, as an upper stance or high strike, there are no details explaining which one is being referred to. So we will refer to jōdan uchi (上段打ち), jōdan uke (上段受け), and jōdan no kamae (上段の構え).

A demonstration of jōdan uchi

Jōdan uchi is simply a high strike, which all bōjutsu styles have as a standard. There are different ways to executing this based on one’s posture, technique, and situation. Jōdan uke shares many similarities in terms of mechanics, and is applied in a similar motion.

An example of jōdan no kamae

The posture jōdan no kamae has a portion of the bō held above head height. Of course, this can vary greatly between schools based on appearance, philosophy, and application. This doesn’t include the myriad of variations that accompany this posture. What holds true, however, is the fact that all schools have a jōdan no kamae, even if it is not named this¹.

Gedan (下段)

Just like jōdan, gedan (下段) is a common name for something that is low or down. In martial arts, it is used to distinguish low attacks and blocks, as well as lower postures. Gedan uchi (下段打ち) is a strike generally aimed at a low target, such as the legs. There are very few variations to this, making it a simple technique to execute from any posture. Gedan uke (下段受け), or lower block, shares a similar motion.

Examples of gedan no kamae

Looking at the posture gedan no kamae (下段の構え), this is an emphasis of one end, or the entirety, of the bō low close to the ground. Different variations have the portion held close to the ground either position in front or behind. Since this is a standard posture, there are schools that stick with the name as-is, but it’s not uncommon for other names to be used.

Koshi guruma (腰車)

This is a technique where the bō is held near or behind the hip, and is then swung in a large, sweeping arc. A rather large attack, it is also very strong. While in some instructions the targeting area may be mentioned being the opponent’s chest or hip, realisitically it can target just about anywhere.

Demonstration of a version of koshi guruma in motion

Koshi guruma is not posture-specific, but instead emphasizes utilizing the bō attached to the hip. Of course, this opens the door for some postures to transition into this much easier than others, including those where the back end of the bō is held lower to the ground, or the bō is whirled from behind the back.

Kasa no shita (笠下)

The name kasa no shita literally translates to “under the umbrella”. The bō is held horizontal around shoulder level , either from the front or behind. From my experience, this is a technique that tends to deal with a attack from underneath in a raising manner, or swung to the front in a sweeping manner if held from behind.

Demonstration of a version of kasa no uchi in motion

From my understanding, there is no right or wrong when comparing kasa no shita being done from the front or behind, as both are situational. Of course, certain systems my emphasize one over the other according to their methodology.

Mizuhiki (水引)

This technique is an interesting one. While some other modern references mention about it being a common one for many bojutsu systems, it’s a name I’ve not seen much of, nor is the name itself assuming. Visually I am able to discern this as a standard technique that can be found in many schools, whether as a focused one within a kata or just a stand-alone one.

Demonstration of a version of mizuhiki in motion

Mizuhiki involves the bō aimmed upwards from a crouching position, attacking the opponent’s hands from below. Looking beyond the idea of technique, Mizuhiki represents the strategy of being able to use the bō from a crouching position. One may find themselves needing to swing their bō from a low position whether intentionally or through circumstance.

Kurai (位)

The term kurai refers to manipulating the bō based on the situation. This means one wields it dynamically. In some ways, it is like assuming a kamae. This is an older label that hints more on strategic use of positions and how they directly influence the way of holding the bō.

As an example, if you are facing off against an opponent on a hill and you have the high ground, it would be more natural to take up a gedan no kamae where the bō is held in the front, so to attack & control the opposition much easier. On the opposite side of the coin, if you are on the lower part of the hill, then there is a higher probability that seigan no kamae will be the more effective posture.

Since the concept of kurai is so open-ended based on how each bōjutsu system’s methodolgy is structured, there are no set postures to represent this.

While small and concise, this document can contribute as research material to understanding the development of Japanese martial arts during the 1800s when paired with other sources. Of course it is not perfect, as this is from one person’s (or group of people) perspective, while we do not get any info as to why these techniques are chosen as being standard amongst most bōjutsu systems. Still, this gives some food for thought for those who want to compare the similarities and differences between Japanese martial systems.

1) It was common practice to conceal aspects of one’s style in the past. Sometimes this included naming a technique in an inconspicuous way, making it difficult to know what it is unless demonstrated and explained in person. While sharing of information between martial arts schools is much more abundant in modern times, there are still some styles today that uphold a level of secrecy.

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The Unspoken Basics of Body Structure

There is something that many martial arts have in common. This similarity deals with the fundamental structures we assume with our bodies during combat, and how it can dictate our positioning against an opponent. From my own experience, along with cross-training with and conversing with others, I’ve learn that this fundamental structure is very basic in nature, but is a root support even for advanced instructions. While the approach may differ from one martial art system to another, the end result is generally the same.

This article will discuss this from a kobudō point of view, although I’m sure those from different systems will be able to relate. 2 fundamental body structures that are prominent are “ichimonji” and “hira ichimonji”.

Ichimonji (一文字) in Japanese means “straight line”. While the attitude of the body depicts this, the underline principles speak on it much more. In kobudō, kamae, or postures, that use this body structure generally have one leg forward, and the other leg behind. The front leg’s toes are usually facing forward, while the back leg’s toes are pointing outward, almost 90 degrees. Examples of kamae that are used that greatly represent this linear body structure are Ichimonji no kamae, Katate Seigan no kamae, and Kōsei no kamae.

Ichimonji
Here’s a representation of ichimonji, viewed from a bird’s eye perspective. In terms of application, we imagine our body turned to the side while facing forward (up).

The strength of this ichimonji, or “straight line” body structure is that it dictates moving forward linearly in a slimmer profile. In application, one can punch or block on a linear path, and have a longer reach because the upper body turns to the side. The slimmer profile makes it easier to be a smaller target, with the ability to slip by and evade oncoming attacks.

Ichimonji no kamae (left) and Kōsei no kamae (right)

The next fundamental body structure, hira ichimonji (平一文字), describe objects that are straight laterally and appear “flat”. In combative scenarios, this shape can be referred to as “squaring up”. In kobudō, postures that use this body structure have us facing forward with our shoulders and hips aligned, and our feet pointing forward at an angle. Examples of kamae with this body structure include Hira Ichimonji no kamae and Hoko no kamae.

Hira ichimonji
Here’s an example of hira ichimonji. From a bird’s eye perspective, this represents facing forward (up) with our body aligned straight with no twists.

Since we are wider with a Hira Ichimonji body structure, there is more rooted stability. It is easier to impose strength, such as during grappling, or show a lack of strength with one’s arms down. It is a more natural body form, meaning movements of all types can be done as well.

Hira Ichimonji no kamae (left) and Hira no kamae (right)

Here is an example of how these fundamental structures determine mechanical movement. There is a unique method of movement called shikkō (膝行), which involves walking while kneeling down. We start off in a kneeling position called seiza (正座), with both palms placed on top of the thighs near the hips. Next, we raise our right leg up and put our right foot forward while turning our upper body to the left through our hips. from there, we bring our right knee down to the ground as our entire body slides forward. Lastly, we return back to seiza by pulling our left leg forward next to our right leg, all the while turning our hips to face forward. We repeat this by alternating to our left leg by raising it up & forward in the same fashion. In seiza we have a hira ichimonji structure, but whenever we step forward our body shifts into an ichimonji structure. This is the proper way to do it, for trying to maintain only hira ichimonji structure is unnatural and very difficult. This demonstration of shifting our body into an ichimonji structure is also key for many other skills while in seiza, which includes punching and grappling.

The natural flow of the body while performing shikkō.

Earlier it was mentioned that each fundamental structure represents a posture. While this is truth for the most part, it is not entirely written in stone, especially since postures are not static poses. In fact, it is not unusual for a posture to have both an ichimonji structure and a hira ichimonji structure. Let’s take Hassō no kamae from Kukishinden ryu Naginatajutsu. When we assume Hassō no kamae with our naginata in hand to our right side, it is not wrong to stand with our left foot forward and upper body turned to the right, or with both feet roughly lined up together while facing forward with our chest. Each variation of this kamae have their advantages, especially when analyzed from a battlefield perspective.

Hasso no kamae performed with the naginata. To the left it is done with ichimonji body structure, while to the right is with hira ichimonji body structure.

If we look at the ichimonji structure of this kamae, not only does it allow the user to evade an incoming strike from an enemy while setting up for a counterattack, it also makes a person a smaller target while wearing armor, along with using the oosode (大袖, plates of woven armor draped beside the shoulder) as a shield. On the other hand, hira ichimonji structure is beneficial in group formation, for if a group of warriors are wielding naginata, they create a natural barricade against incoming enemies, all the while having the ability to push back with the shaft and quickly delivering a kesa giri (袈裟斬り, diagonal cut) through small motions. There is great versatility with these 2 fundamental body structures in the techniques of kobudō, offering infinite possibilities once well versed in adapting them in our movements.

In closing, these two fundamental body structures are linear, making the concept of them representing a lateral and horizontal line simple to grasp. As many things that are simple in nature, they hold an abundance of value when applied to strategic lessons. This holds true for kobudō, as well as other martial arts.

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Understanding Torite from the Perspective of the Aggressor

As an objective of growth for 2023, my training group will be focusing on more close-quarter combat. One concept related to this is torite (捕手). Torite can be translated as grappling, catching, or arresting. In many ways it is similar to judō as a form of grappling system, but has many differences due to the purpose of usage, techniques allowed, as well as tools that can used to assist.

When learning the methods of torite, usually practitioners train in katageiko (型稽古), which is a drill that features one person as a defender and another as an attacker. The scenario used in katageiko generally consists of an attacker initiating a confrontation by grabbing the defender, while the defender reacts using specified techniques to defend against & defeat the opposition. It is very common for a student to learn the specifics regarding how to apply torite to defeat an attacker’s technique, as well as subdue them with their own. However, what is not covered in detail at the beginning of one’s training are the advantages the attacker has when performing their initial torite (grapple) technique. In theory, the initial action of a skilled attacker would prove difficult to stop if timed correctly, which is why the #1 effective defense is not to be there as a target.

For today’s article, I will cover various grapples an attacker may attempt that we train to defend against, and explain briefly the advantages of these if an attacker is successful in pulling this off.

SINGLE HAND WRIST GRAB

With a forward or downward pull, you can take a person’s balance as they stumble forward, leaving their upper body vulnerable to attacks. There is also a double hand wrist grab version.

Grabbing an opponent’s sleeve can be used as another variation of this. In similar fashion, you can manipulate an opponent by pulling downward, forward, or to the side. Depending on which hand you use, an opponent’s arm can be pulled across their body by their sleeves, leaving their side vulnerable and unable to defend themselves.

SLEEVE GRAB NEAR ELBOW

Grabbing the sleeve closer to the elbow gives more control in manipulating an opponent’s upper body, especially along their spine. Pulling here downwards to your hip, or outward, can take their balance, and leave them open for strikes or throws. Similar to the sleeve grab near the wrist.

SINGLE LAPEL GRAB

Seizing the lapel from the front with one hand isn’t just limited to a strike with the other hand. One can still manipulate an opponent by pushing or pulling while gripping the lapel to take balance, and can administer more weighted control by pulling  downward at the same time. Of course, this is not done through just the strength of one’s arm, but has to be coordinated with movements by the entire body. Depending on if you grab the lapel on the same side as your hand or go for the opposite side, you can push or pull the opponent right or left.

DOUBLE LAPEL GRAB

A much more secure version, this offers the same results as the single lapel grab, but with even greater control. Shoving and pushing can greatly take balance, along with lower body techniques that are difficult to anticipate. It is also easier to execute throws and take downs since you are using both hands.

BEHIND LAPEL GRAB

This is usually done at an opponent’s blind side, which is typically from the back. When done correctly, one can quickly pull down the opponent to the ground, or push the opponent forward by striking with the same hand that grabs. Outside of this, one can use their free hand and legs to deliver strikes.

SINGLE SLEEVE-LAPEL GRAB

This is a familiar set up for specific throws, such as seoi nage (背負投げ, shoulder throw). Of course, we have to set up prior to make throws work effectively. As the aggressor, the hand that grabs the lapel can strike into sensitive areas around the face and neck to create opening, while the hand that holds the sleeve manipulates by pulling to take balance in different directions.

In closing, understanding the strong points of an attacker is critical in martial arts. It is often stated that the one who throws the 1st punch wins a confrontation. The same can be said with well-timed & well-executed grapples. That being said, there is a lot of value understanding how an attacker cam truly use the initial grapple to win. From this can we learn how to effectively defend against this.

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Tegumi: A Glance at Coordinated Teamwork

Troop formation and group strategies are an interesting topic for those who enjoy studying how wars and battles were conducted from historical documents. Taking a look what texts and illustrations are left behind from medieval Japan, such topics are presented either in a sophisticated manner that leaves a lot to desire in terms of effectiveness, or are heavily-coded that usually those who are privy to the unspoken details can decipher it thoroughly. One of the more popular of these are how specific warlords used certain famous formations with their army, which are normally labeled as “jinkei” (陣形).

In this article, examples of coordinated teams or squads called “tegumi” (手組) will be reviewed. Before this, we’ll look at some background info of the source from where it comes from.

MANUSCRIPTS OF KŌKA WARRIORS’ SKILLS

There are many sources that speak on the topic of military practices, some more obscure than others. In 2017, an Edo-period collection of family-owned manuscripts were reproduced, compiled into one book, and presented to the public. This book is titled, “Watanabe Toshinobu kemonjo – Owari-han Kōkamon Kankei Shiryō” (渡辺俊経家文書－尾張藩甲賀者関係史料).

Book featuring manuscripts from the Watanabe collection
Front cover of the book.

The specifics on these manuscripts are that they were of the Watanabe clan, who were an influential family for several generations within the Kōka region located in present-day Shiga Prefecture, Japan. Within this collection are important info for whoever was head of the family, which includes lineage, contract-like documentation, military-related strategies, combat-related skills, and shinobi-related practices. Warriors of Kōka are especially renown for their expertise in shinobi no jutsu, which is popularly known under the modern label ninjutsu.

Within the book is a section on the military strategies referred to as “Kōka Gunpō”. Here we see a manuscript called “Inyō Yōkan no maki” (陰陽用間の巻). This appears to have been written for intended use by those who engaged in shinobi activities, for the opening statement includes a point that ninjutsu is a pivotal part of the military strategies of Kōka.

ANALYZING THE TEGUMI

Below will be the text and diagrams from the book. Presentation of source material is very simple, so manually typing the text and drawing the diagrams digitally is the route I’ve taken to make formatting the content easily in this article.

The 1st part of this section is the introduction of a formation which consists of 4 different patterns of formation, and are color-coded.

TEGUMI NO HŌ (手組法, Strategy of Group Operation)

#1

JAPANESEENGLISH
五行一段　Gogyo ichidan (5 Methods – 1st level)
青
赤
黄色
白
黒 		Ao (Blue)
Aka (Red)
Kiiro (Yellow)
Shiro (White)
Kuro (Black)

#2

JAPANESEENGLISH
五行二段Gogyo nidan (5 Methods – 2nd level)
青
白		Ao (Blue)
Shiro (White)

#3

JAPANESEENGLISH
五行三段　Gogyo sandan (5 Methods – 3rd level)
青
白
黒		Ao (Blue)
Shiro (White)
Kuro (Black)

#4

JAPANESEENGLISH
五行四面法Gogyo yonmenpō (5 Methods – 4 sides trick)
青
赤
白
黒		Ao (Blue)
Aka (Red)
Shiro (White)
Kuro (Black)

Taking a guess, there are different teams within each level, each color-coded. Since we are dealing with troop formations, this makes the most logical sense, especially when you compare with other documentations on like subject. It is even possible that number of members distributed within each team are evenly proportional. The following information below leans toward this.

右人数ニ拾人一組
A team of 20+ members to the right

Were these intended for infiltration purposes or battlefield engagement? Possibly for raiding an enemy fort? It’s possible with a small number of troops, especially during the night. Unfortunately, the use of Tegumi no hō is not stated in the text, so we can only speculate. Let’s move on for more clues.

Next in the section we get our 1st visual troop formation coupled with a diagram. Here’s a digital recreation of both the diagram and the troop formation.

ICHIKUMI YONMENBI (一組四面備, 4-sided arranged team)

cardinal directions

English Translation:

南/South

東/East　　　　　　　西/West

北/North

4-sided arranged team

This formation gives an example of tactical application. Visually we can see there are four teams made up with 5 lines each, which are determined based on the simple use of cardinal directions north, south, east, and west. There is also one more group, which, assuming it follows the directions style in the manuscript, is positioned in the north-west. Considering how the northern team is positioned, it’s possible that there is someone of importance there, such as a field commander, and the 5th team is added security from a flank. Unfortunately, there’s not enough information to verify this or the purpose of the 5th team.

Something worth mentioning is this is possibly related to the previous Tegumi no hō, for different teams color-coded can easily be applied to this 4-way pattern.

After this 4-way pattern is the following label.

人数百人一手一組
Army of 100-troop divisions

Here, the number of troops in this formation is 100. Should this number be taken as a literal count? It’s possible, but it could be another case where it represents an estimate of a large brigade with individuals operating in groups. If this numerical value is to be taken as accurate, then each team is made up of 20 troops, with each line represent 4 soldiers.

The next insert follows in suit with having  4 teams.

ITTE YONMEN NO ZU (一手四面之図, Diagram of a 4-sided division)

Cardinal directions and colors

English Translation:

南/South

東/East　　　　　　　 西/West

　　　　 北/North

　　　　          赤/red

青/blue　　黄/yellow　 白/white

　　　　         黒/black

　　

Once again we get a description of some form of formation according to the cardinal directions, along with the use of color labels from the Gogyo Tegumi no hō. However, this formation may not be for the army itself, for in the diagram we see long rectangle-like structures. It’s possible that these are obstacles like barricades positioned in a way to make advancement for the opposition difficult, while the defending side takes up advantageous positioning to rout them from whichever side they emerge from. Unfortunately, there are no descriptions of how to use this.

Along with the diagrams we get the following text.

人数四百人一手四組
Four teams that are made up of an army of 400 soldiers.

If we take the number literally, this could mean that 400 soldiers are broken into 4 teams, possibly with each made up of an even number of 100.

Now we look at the final diagram.

GOGYO HACHIDAN-ZU (五行八段図, Diagram of 5 Methods 8th-level)

8 teams 1000 troops

English Translation:

same　　125 soldiers　　same

125 soldiers　Castle　125 soldiers

same　　125 soldiers　　same

Along with this, follows the text below.　　

右人数千人
To the right¹, formation consisting of 1000 soldiers

Here we get the implication of the Gogyo Tegumi no hō pattern used on a much larger scale. We can assume that the color labels are applied to each team, making up the north-south-east-west pattern. However, what about the other 4 teams at the diagonals? Seeing how 4-way pattern has been the main theme so far, this methodology can be doubled by applying another 4 teams at the diagonals as well.

At the center of this formation is yet again a point of interest. In the diagram we get a label that stands for “castle”. Could the formation be a defensive one, or an offensive one?

ENDING

This concludes our look into a surviving manuscript with group teamwork recorded. It’s a shame that the diagrams do not come with more descriptions in order to get a better understand, but this is to be expected with content that could be compromised if it fell in the hands of a rival. This article is the 1st on the topic of troop strategies from medieval Japan, as there are more I have plan to cover soon.

1) The manuscript originally follows the old-fashioned reading style of right-to-left, top-to-bottom, with the text essentially coming after the diagram. Thus, the reason why the text refers to the diagram “to the right”.