Over the years, many articles here cover medieval Japan, from famous warlords, iconic battles, and legendary weapons. In some of these, theatrical actors and performers have also been mentioned, such as being granted important heirlooms from noble families. Who are these individuals, and why were they in a position to interact with powerful, influential people? To get an idea is to first look at their profession known as nōgaku (能楽), a traditional performing arts rich with cultural heritage. Nowadays, this is popularly represented through the theatrical performances of Noh (能) and Kyōgen (狂言).
To cover nōgaku in its entirety is a huge task probably not possible in one article. Instead, I will give an introduction to it and how it was received throughout 3 specific periods in Japan. These 3 periods were influences by the military class, the ruling shogunate during peaceful times, and the reception of the common folks.
WHAT IS NŌGAKU?
Nōgaku is the umbrella term used for theatrical entertainment, which can be interpreted through its name as “performing arts and musical entertainment”, although in actuality there are different categories of performing arts outside of nōgaku, each developed at different points in Japan’s history. If we make an attempt to look at the possible roots of nōgaku, then we can turn to the 4th-volume of the theoretical writings on the subject entitled “Fūshin Kaden” (風姿花伝) as a source¹. Entitled “Shingi” (神儀, Divine Rituals), this volume introduces a story that claims the forefather of nōgaku in Japan is “Hata no Kawakatsu” (秦河勝), a nobleman of the Hata clan who was also a skilled performer in his own rights during the 6th century-early 7th century. Kawakatsu’s greatest feat is single-handedly fulfilling the request of his host, Prince Shōtoku (聖󠄁德太子, Shōtoku Taishi) to perform an auspicious dance called “Rokujūroku ban no Monomane” (六十六番の物まね, The 66th Imiatation), which was able to ward off many calmities inflicting their land. The claim here is that the concept of theatrical performance was born from the miracle in this story, which in turn brings forth what we can call nōgaku.
The style of nōgaku, which is represented today through Noh and Kyōgen, is acredited to an older form known as sarugaku (猿楽)², where the performer(s) assumes character roles and play out stories through song and dance. This came into fruition and slowly grew throughout the ages from as early as the mid-early 1300s of the Muromachi Period, surviving over 600 years to the modern era.
KANAMI’S CONTRIBUTIONS
The long history of nōgaku and its survival to present day is accredited to Kanami (観阿弥), a sarugaku specialist, and his son Zeami (世阿弥). The two started their careers as actors in a performance group of their own during the 14th century, putting on short plays primarily during religious processions at temples and shrines. The theme of these short plays were more in line with the auspicious beliefs and practices tied to these establishments. At some point, other performance troupes began to try new things, such as wearing masks, wearing more colorful outfits, incorporating singing, enchanting music, and putting on intricately choreographed dances. Kanami and Zeami conformed with the changes as well, to the point where they became trend-setters, going beyond the expected as they evolved their simple performances into something more captivating with diverse tales that were outworldly and surreal.
Through much effort, Kanami’s troupe’s craft grew over time as they gained attention from prominent groups. In time, nōgaku became a commodity of sorts through sarugaku as stylized through the father-son duo, along with other performance troupe that followed suit. The demand to witness the brilliance of nōgaku went as far as performance groups receiving permits to travel to those very elite families’ estates to entertain them.
Essentially, Kanami and Zeami are revered as pioneers of the direction nōgaku has gone to as we know it. The result is many of the famous performances are based on classical tales, which range from folklore, romance, to war stories. While some are original, many of these were already familiar to those from wealthy, prestigious families in the past, as they come from books they read or from stories told to them while growing up…but now these same people could experience those tales unraveling before their eyes in real life. What makes these performers so attractive are the following highlights: the wide usage of masks, the intricate movements during jigs, and manner of speech for storytelling through songs, all accompanied with lavishly flamboyant and colorful outfits, as well as bigger than life accessories such as wigs, props, and the like. Some troupes even incorporate props such as fans and mock weapons to captivate viewers. Other troupes added a flair of comedy to some of the stories they played out.
NŌGAKU FOR THE MILITARY CLASS
Let’s step back abit and examine the historical progression of nōgaku. Through the evolution of sarugaku, nōgaku gained a solid foundation later in the Muromachi period going forward as performance troupes grew into specialists of their craft, gaining high regard towards their skills in both acting and storytelling. So high, that prominent figures with military might and land control would commission them for special events and gatherings. As compensation, performance troupes received payments in the form of sustenance, such as baskets of rice. In other cases, they would be given currency such as coins, treasures such as weapons, or tradable goods like silks and high-quality clothing. The biggest payment of them all is earning patronage from a powerful lord, meaning receiving possible long term support.
This exclusivity would later have nōgaku earn the nickname “buke no shikigaku” (武家の式楽), with the reasoning due to it being categorized as ceremonial entertainment for the elite. Big names associated to such status includes the ruling Ashikaga clan during the Muromachi period, to competing warlords like Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu during the Sengoku period. While many of the elite enjoyed nōgaku as pure entertainment, there were those few who resonated with it in the form of self expression. For instance, there are records of prominent figures like Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu studying nōgaku, and performing privately in their quarters.
Screen shots of 2 famous nogaku plays, “Atsumori” (left) and “Takasago” (right). Both can be viewed on Youtube here and here.”
Let’s take Nobunaga and his love for “Atsumori” (敦盛) as an example. Atsumori is a theatrical play done in kōwakai mai-style (幸若舞, historical storytelling through song and dance), and is based on Taira no Atsumori from the famous war journal “Heike Monogatari”. There is a particular scene in the 3rd act, which retells the earlier moments of Taira no Atsumori as he recites a death poem, which goes as the following:
| JAPANESE (ORIGINAL) | ENGLISH TRANSLATION |
人間五十年、 下天のうちにくらぶれば、 夢幻の如くなり | A person’s lifespan is that of 50 years, Compared to 1 day within the realm of Geten³, It is very short, like a dream or an illusion |
This particular scene resonated with Nobunaga deeply, as he too must always prepare for death during the multitude of battle campaigns he took part in for the sake of claiming rule over Japan. As proof, it’s recorded in surviving documents that he performed the same scene within his residence on several occassions before significant events, such the night before heading out with his army to fight against Imagawa Yoshimoto at the battle at Okehazama (桶狭間の戦い, Okehazama no tatakai) in 1560.
NŌGAKU FOR THE SHOGUNATE
Nōgaku would continue to grow alongside the establishment of the Tokugawa Shogunate in the 17th century. This is due in part of the favoritism from Tokugawa Ieyasu himself, as well as continued support from the succession line of the Tokugawa family. Nōgaku was seen as a cultural property worth maintaining, thus was at one point labeled as “Bakufu no shikigaku” (幕府の式楽) as it utilized as ceremonial entertainment for events held in Edo castle for the shogunate.
As during the warring periods, nōgaku performers were commissioned to perform within Edo castle, where the Tokugawa shogun and family resided, as well as where nobles who work within the Bakufu. Their service became a standard during shogunate succession ceremonies. Along with this, nōgaku was designated for special occasions like weddings, coming-of-age ceremonies, and the like. Locations that hosted these events include the honmaru (the main grounds) where the shogun lived, and nishimaru (the western grounds) where the heir to the shogun position resides).
As mentioned earlier, the descendents next in line as shogun of the Tokugawa line maintained the importance of nōgaku, to the point where it became more than just for entertainment. A prime example is the 5th shogun Tokugawa Tsunayoshi, who was known for his unusually passion for nōgaku…to the point that this obsession became problematic to handle by those around him. This obsessive behavior is labeled as “nōgurui“ (能狂い). For instance, Tsunayoshi was not only enraptured with these performances, it is said he demanded these performers to put on shows during unusual situations, such as at times when he was sick. Tsunayoshi is also recorded to learn how to perform dances from the performances he watched, which was his personal preference. However, he also enforced others who were subjects of his or employed under the shogunate to learn the ways of nōgaku performances for personal development…much to their dismay.
Other famous individuals who fall under this phrase are actually well known swordmasters, such as members of the Yagyū family. Known for their swordsmanship through Yagyū Shinkage ryū Hyōhō, the Yagyū family have a long history with nōgaku, starting with the founder Yagyū Sekishusai Munetoshi. As a sword instructor for the Tokugawa Shogunate, he was frequent in many shikigaku events at Edo castle. There, he became good aquaintance with Konparu Shichirō Ujikatsu (金春七郎氏勝), a nōgaku performer of the Konparu style (金春流, Konparu ryū) who was also competent in the sword and spear⁴. Through this, Munetoshi incorporated principles and concepts of nōgaku into the deeper teachings of the Yagyū swordstyle. Years later, his grandson Yagyū Munefuyu would contribute to the appreciate of nōgaku by constructing a stage within the Yagyū estate, where he and others could proactively study & practice this performing arts.
NŌGAKU FOR TOWNSPEOPLE
For most of Japan’s warring periods, nōgaku was a form of entertainment only accessible to the upperclass consisting of those with military might and land ownership; basically, those with influential power could afford to devise stages in their estate or castle and accomodate such performances. This mindset continued early into the Edo periord, as important events where nohgaku would be entertainment exclusive only to the shogun, their retainers, and invited nobles. These included proclamation ceremonies for new shogun, birth of the next heir to the shogunate, weddings, ringing in the new year, and birthday celebrations.
This exclusivity would soon change upon the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate in the early Edo period. In the late 1600s, the 2nd Shogun Tokugawa Ietsuna made a decree where nōgaku could be performed for the viewing of the townspeople⁵. This was called “machi-iri nō” (町入能). It also went under the title of “onō haiken” (御能拝見). As a once-exclusive pasttime, nōgaku was allowed for public viewing events, which attracted many commonfolks to attend out of curiousity, as well as to finally experience a pasttime once considered exclusive.
This 1st showing was held within the large compound of Edo castle in 1603, within the very compound where the Tokugawa Shogunate established and conducted rule over Japan. To enter this important place, townsfolks were allowed to use the main gate Ōte-mon (大手門), which was originally designated for access by lords from other prefectures. Next, they were directed to assemble in the main grounds, and sit before the performing stage near the southern garden in front of the Ōhiroma. It is recorded that this 1st public-viewing amassed a whopping 5000 people! How accurate this number is, it’s hard to confirm as fact. It’s said that while the townsfolks and other guests assembled around the performing stage, the shogun had a separate seating arrangement away in a different section alongside with his family and close aids.
As time goes on, more areas around Japan established locations where townsfolks could access and watch nōgaku during major events such as festivals. This includes Matsuyama Castle in Iyo-Matsuyama Domain, and Nagoya Castle in Ōwari Domain. Castles used as locations were the most accomodating, since they generally had ample room to create designated performance stages within their grounds.
In time, as Japan steered towards modernization, nōgaku became more accessible to those who have genuine interest in this craft. No longer exclusive to a particular social class, those from the general public who enjoy theatrical performances can now buy tickets to most shows, as well as join special groups whose purpose is to support this craft, such as through offering introductory classes for learning purposes. Today, as a national cultural treasure, nōgaku is preserved through organizations such as The Japan Arts Council (日本芸術文化振興会) and Heiwa Shimin Kōen Nōgaku-dō (平和市民公園能楽堂).
CONCLUSION
We end here on this quick overview on nōgaku. Despite being a field specializing on theatrical, it was highly regarded by the elite, giving those performance troupes a lucritive career and access to interact with powerful individuals commonfolks could only dream of. Thank you for making it this far. Look forward to possible articles that delve in further into the world of nōgaku.
1) This is a 5-volume collection that contains many treaties about nōgaku, which includes tales of its mythological beginnings, methods of training, means to acquiring a wide range of acting skills, how to properly assume the roles of specified characters, and the overall stages a performer will pass through in their journey to perfect their craft. Written by Zeami, who is mentioned later in the article.
2) Sarugaku can be interpreted as “performing with the skills of a monkey”. To be more clear, the image of a monkey is that they are so clever, that they can imitate so many things. A theatrical performer is essentially doing the same thing when they take on the persona of a character or assume a role…thus the reason behind the comparison.
3) Geten (下天) is one of the 6 realms that make up the the Heavenly space as told in Buddhism. This is the lowest of the 6, and is right above the human world.
4) It is recorded that he was a practitioner of Yagyū Shinkage ryū kenjutsu and Hōzoin ryū sōjutsu.
5) There’s an exception to the exclusiveness of nōgaku. While there was the “premium” version only available to the upperclass, there was always a “standard” version. With sarugaku as a basis, it followed along earlier iterations, which were performed at temples and shrines. This would expand especially during Edo period, where such performance were done during the commemoration of successful construction and development projects, such as a new bridge. This type of public performance would then be called kanjin-nō (勧進能). The catch here is that commonfolks needed to pay some form of fee in order to properly watch kanjin-nō performances.